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The Vaca Muerta Formation, commonly known as Vaca Muerta (Spanish language for dead cow), is a geologic formation of Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous age, located in the Neuquén Basin in northern Patagonia, Argentina. It is well known as the host rock for major deposits of tight oil and shale gas.
The large oil discovery in the Vaca Muerta Formation was made in 2010 by the former Repsol-YPF.
In July 2013, protests were heavily repressed by the police. The huge water consumption of fracking as well as the interfere with agriculture. In 2018, the Mapuche sued Exxon, French company TotalEnergies and Pan American Energy for "dangerous waste" due to "deficient treatment" close to the town of Añelo as oily sludge residue from fracking was tipped in illegal waste dumps.
The formation is also known for its fossils, such as those of marine reptiles.
The shale is at a depth of about , where it has been found productive of oil and gas. Although called a shale, and with a total organic carbon content varying from 1 percent to 5 percent, the Vaca Muerta is predominately marl and consists of mature , marls and lime .
Formed in a marine environment with little clay and brittle rock, the deposit is (usually over ) thick, extending throughout the basin. At the time of deposition, the Vaca Muerta was situated on the eastern margin of the Pacific Ocean.
Although the name Vaca Muerta Formation was introduced to the geological literature in 1931 by American geologist Charles E. Weaver, the highly bituminous shales in the Salado River valley in southern Mendoza Province were described in 1892 by Dr. Guillermo Bodenbender. German paleontologists Beherendsen and Steuer determined the Tithonian age of these shales.
The Vaca Muerta Formation represents the most distal facies of the Lower Mendoza Mesosequence, a Tithonian–Valanginian broad shallowing-upward sedimentary cycle.Legarreta, L., Gulisano, C.A., 1989. Análisis estratigráfico secuencial de la Cuenca Neuquina (Triásico superior- Terciario inferior, Argentina). In: Chebli, G., Spalletti, L.A., (Eds.), Cuencas Sedimentarias Argentinas. Universidad Nacional de Tucumán, Serie Correlación Geológica 6, p. 221–243 In the southern part of the Neuquén Basin the Lower Mendoza Mesosequence includes the basinal deposits of the Vaca Muerta Formation (early to middle Tithonian), which to the south-southeast change to mixed carbonate-siliciclastic nearshore deposits of the Carrin Cura Formation (lower part of the middle Tithonian) and Picún Leufú Formation (middle Tithonian – lower Berriasian), and to continental deposits of the Bajada Colorada Formation of Tithonian – Berriasian age.Leanza, H.A., 1973. Estudio sobre los cambios faciales de los estratos limítrofes Jurásico-Cretácicos entre Loncopué y Picun Leufú, Provincia del Neuquén, República Argentina. Revista de la Asociación Geológica Argentina 28, 97–132.Spalletti, L.A., Franzese, J.R., Matheos, S.D. and Schwarz, E. (2000) Sequence stratigraphy of a tidally dominated carbonate-siliciclastic ramp; the Tithonian-Early Berriasian of the Southern Neuquén Basin, Argentina. Geological Society of London, Special Publication 157, pp. 433–446.Leanza, H. A., Sattler, F., Martinez, R., Carbone, O., 2011. La Formación Vaca Muerta y Equivalentes (Jurásico Tardío – Cretácico Temprano) en la Cuenca. Neuquina. In: Leanza, H.A., Arregui, C., Carbone, O., Daniela, J.C., Vallés, J.M. (Eds.), Geología y Recursos Naturales de la Provincia del Neuquén, Neuquén, 113–129. In the central part of the Neuquén Basin, also known as Neuquén embayment, the Lower Mendoza Mesosequence consists of basinal deposits of the Vaca Muerta Formation (early to upper Tithonian), which to the east change to shoreface deposits of the Quintuco Formation (upper Tithonian – lower Valanginian), and to sabkha deposits of the Loma Montosa Formation (lower Valanginian), forming a mixed carbonate-siliciclastic depositional system.Gulisano, C.A., Gutiérrez Pleimling, A.R., Digregorio, R.E., 1984. Análisis estratigráfico del intervalo Tithoniano-Valanginiano (Formaciones Vaca Muerta, Quintuco y Mulichinco) en el suroeste de la provincia de Neuquén. 9 Congreso Geológico Argentino, Actas 1, 221–235.Mitchum, R.M., Uliana, M.A., 1985. Seismic stratigraphy of carbonate depositional sequences, Upper Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous. Neuquén Basin, Argentina. In: Berg, R.B., Woolverton, D.G. (Eds.), Seismic Stratigraphy: An Integrated Approach to Hydrocarbon Exploration. AAPG Memoir 39, 255–274. Westward the Vaca Muerta Formation includes slope facies (Huncal Member), and in the Chilean territory pass into shallow marine/volcanic deposits. Leanza, H.A., Hugo, C.A., Repol, D., Salvarredy Aranguren, M., 2003. El Miembro Huncal (Berriasiano inferior): un episodio turbidítico en la Formación Vaca Muerta, Cuenca Neuquina, Argentina. Revista de la Asociación Geológica Argentina 58, 248–254. Kietzmann, D.A., Vennari, V.V., 2013. Sedimentología y estratigrafía de la Formación Vaca Muerta (Tithoniano-Berriasiano) en el área del cerro Domuyo, norte de Neuquén, Argentina. Andean Geology 40, 41–65. Spalletti, L. A., G. D. Veiga, E. Schwarz, and J. Franzese, 2008, Depósitos de flujos gravitacionales subácueos de sedimentos en el flanco activo de la Cuenca Neuquina durante el Cretácico Temprano: Revista de la Asociación Geológica Argentina, v. 63, 442–453. By contrast, in the southern Mendoza area the Lower Mendoza Mesosequence consists of aggradational and divergent sequences, with a maximum thickness of towards the center of the basin. It includes basinal to middle carbonate ramp deposits of the Vaca Muerta Formation (early Tithonian – early Valanginian) and middle to inner ramp oyster-deposits of the Chachao Formation (early Valanginian), which form an homoclinal carbonate ramp system. Kietzmann, D.A., Palma, R.M., Bressan, G.S., 2008. Facies y microfacies de la rampa tithoniana-berriasiana de la Cuenca Neuquina (Formación Vaca Muerta) en la sección del arroyo Loncoche – Malargüe, provincia de Mendoza. Revista de la Asociación Geológica Argentina 63, 696–713.Kietzmann, D.A., Martín-Chivelet, J., Palma, R.M., López-Gómez, J., Lescano, M., Concheyro, A., 2011a. Evidence of precessional and eccentricity orbital cycles in a Tithonian source rock: the mid-outer carbonate ramp of the Vaca Muerta Formation, Northern Neuquén Basin, Argentina. AAPG Bulletin 95, 1459–1474.Kietzmann, D.A., Palma, R.M., Riccardi, A.C., Martín-Chivelet, J., López-Gómez, J., 2014. Sedimentology and sequence stratigraphy of a Tithonian-Valanginian carbonate ramp (Vaca Muerta Formation): a misunderstood exceptional source rock in the Southern Mendoza area of the Neuquén Basin, Argentina. Sedimentary Geology 302, 64–86. Westward, undated tidal to continental mixed deposits have been recognized and correlated with the Vaca Muerta and Chachao Formations, receiving the name of Lindero de Piedra Formation.Legarreta, L., Kozlowski, E., Boll, A., 1981. Esquema estratigráfico y distribución de facies del Grupo Mendoza en el ámbito surmendocino de la cuenca neuquina. 8º Congreso Geológico Argentino, Actas 3, 389–409.
| Liopleurodon | L. sp. | A Pliosauridae | ||||
| Pliosaurus | P. patagonicus | A large Pliosauridae | ||||
| P. almanzaensis |
| Arthropterygius | A. thalassonotus | An ophthalmosaurid Ichthyosauria | ||||
| Catutosaurus | C. gaspariniae | An ophthalmosaurid ichthyosaur | ||||
| CaypullisaurusM. S. Fernández. 1997. A new Ichthyosaur from the Tithonian (Late Jurassic) of the Neuquen Basin, Northwestern Patagonia, Argentina. Journal of Paleontology 71(3):479-484 | C. bonapartei | A Platypterygiinae ophthalmosaurid | ||||
| Ophthalmosaurus | O. sp. | An ophthalmosaurid ichthyosaur | ||||
| Sumpalla | S. argentina | A Platypterygiinae ophthalmosaurid | ||||
| Cricosaurus | C. araucanensis | A Metriorhynchinae Metriorhynchidae | ||||
| Dakosaurus | D. andiniensis | A Geosaurinae Metriorhynchinae | ||||
| Geosaurus | G. araucanensis | A geosaurine Metriorhynchidae | ||||
| Purranisaurus | P. potens | A geosaurine Metriorhynchidae | ||||
| Herbstosaurus | H. pigmaeus | Partial skeleton | A Pterodactyloidea Pterosauria | |||
| Wenupteryx | W. uzi | Partial skeleton of a subadult individual, referred incomplete ulna | Pterodactyloidea pterosaur with affinities to Archaeopterodactyloidea | |||
| Pterodactyloidea | Indeterminate | Tibiotarsus | Estimated wingspan of over 3 metres, represents a distinct taxon from named species due to size differences. |
| Neusticemys | N. neuquina | A Thalassochelydia sea-turtle | ||||
| Notoemys | N. laticentralis | A Platychelyidae turtle |
| Bunoderma | B. baini | A Actinopterygii | ||||
| Catutoichthys | C. olsacheri | A Caturidae Amiiformes | ||||
| Jonoichthys | J. challwa | A Aspidorhynchidae fish | ||||
| LeedsichthysGouiric-Cavalli, Soledad. "Large and Mainly Unnoticed: The First Lower Tithonian Record of a Suspension-Feeding Pachycormid from Southern Gondwana." Ameghiniana 54.3 (2017): 283-289. | L. problematicus | A Pachycormidae fish | ||||
| Leptolepis | L. australis | A Leptolepidae fish | ||||
| L. dubius | ||||||
| Notodectes | N. argentinus | A Pachycormiformes fish | ||||
| Pholidophorus | P. argentinus | A Pholidophoridae fish |
| Argentiniceras | A. noduliferum | |||||
| Aspidoceras | A. euomphalum | |||||
| Blanfordiceras | B. cf. wallichi | |||||
| Catutosphinctes | C. sp. A | |||||
| C. guenenakenensis | ||||||
| C. cf. proximus | ||||||
| C. rafaeli | ||||||
| Corongoceras | C. alternans | |||||
| C. mendozanum | ||||||
| Cieneguiticeras | C. perlaevi | |||||
| Himalayites | H. cf. andinus | |||||
| Indansites | I. picunleufuense | |||||
| Karakaschiceras | K. attenuatus | |||||
| Lissonia | L. riveroi | |||||
| Mazatepites | M. arredondense | |||||
| Olcostephanus | O. atherstoni | |||||
| Physodoceras | P. sp. A | |||||
| Pseudhimalayites | P. subpretiosus | |||||
| Pseudolissoceras | P. zitteli | |||||
| Windhauseniceras | W. internispinosum |
This team screened all Argentine source rock formations and proposed Vaca Muerta as principal objective because logistics were easier and it held greater potential.
Target well locatíons were selected in most of the exploration and production leases. A policy of systematically testing the wells after they had been stimulated was adopted with wells in the Loma La Lata/ Loma Campana area being tied into existing production facilities. By March 2012 data was available from over 25 stimulated wells. The D-129 source rock had also started to be explored had tested positive.
As part of the visualization the logistics required to develop the assets were investigated with the need for importation of drilling rigs and fracturing equipment being identified together with an opportunity for ín-country proppant sand production. The critical path was however the availability of heavy motor mechanics.
In July 2010, Repsol-YPF recognized the productive potential of the Vaca Muerta Shale of the Neuquén Basin, and completed Argentina's first shale gas well at the Loma La Lata field. In November 2010, the company completed a tight oil well in the Vaca Muerta Shale in the Loma Campana area. In August 2011, the first horizontal well in the Vaca Muerta was drilled and completed. By October 2012, 31 wells had been drilled and completed, and another 20 had been drilled and were awaiting completion. The drilling had extended the Vaca Muerta producing extent to an area of at least .Carol Cain McGowen, "Argentina's Vaca Muerta draws GTW spotlight" AAPG Explorer, Jan. 2013.
As of 2011, the total proven reserves were around , and as of 2014 YPF's production alone was nearly . In February 2012, Repsol YPF SA raised its estimate of oil reserves to . The US EIA estimated in 2013 total recoverable hydrocarbons from Vaca Muerta Formation to be of oil and of natural gas, more than even the Neuquén Basin's hydrocarbon-rich Middle Jurassic Los Molles Formation holds.
One problem in attracting development was Argentina's price controls on natural gas, keeping the price down to US$2.00-$2.50 per million BTU. However, the government exempted tight gas from controls, and in 2011 the Vaca Muerta gas was selling for US$4–$7. The higher gas prices attracted major oil companies, including
In May 2013, YPF announced that it had negotiated a joint venture in which Chevron Corporation would invest US$1.5 billion drilling 132 wells on the Loma Campana field.
On October 8, 2014, Argentine Industry Minister Débora Georgi reported that YPF had signed a confidential agreement in principle with Gazprom that could lead to a US$1 billion investment in gas exploration and production "in Argentina".
In April 2015, Gallucio stated that production in the Loma Campana field had reached 44,000-45,000 barrels of oil equivalent a day.
In April 2015, YPF signed a memorandum on cooperation with Gazprom, though it had previously denied the report. As of May 2015, more than 30 oil and gas companies were active in Vaca Muerta.
In June 2015, YPF announced a new discovery in Vaca Muerta, this time in the La Ribera I block, with an initial output of 43,000 cubic meters (over 1.5 million cubic feet) of gas a day. In November 2015, YPF indicated that production from Vaca Muerta was 54,000 barrels of oil equivalent daily, with 47,000 from Loma Campana; it also indicated that Chevron had invested US$2,500,000,000 over the last two years. YPF showed production for the third quarter of 2016 at 58,200 barrels of oil equivalent daily from 522 wells, with 11 rigs working.
In September 2016, after the change of government in Argentina, YPF said that proposed new rates for gas would permit the continued development of gas in Vaca Muerta.
As of 2017, there were almost 500 fracking wells, one of the most fracked sites outside North America.
As of October 2024, there were over 1500 fracking wells and local infrastructure was stressed. The massive oil production produced an energy trade surplus for the first time since production began in 2012. An investment of $1.2 billion in the Rincón de Aranda field was planned to further increase oil production. Gas cannot yet be exported as there are no plants to turn it into LNG and no pipelines.
As of April 2022, the following banks financed operations in Vaca Muerta: Citi Bank, Credit Suisse, Deutsche Bank, Goldman Sachs,
HSBC, ING, Industrial and Commercial Bank of China (ICBC) and Morgan Stanley. Both IBD and World Bank have funded massive urban planning projects in Añelo city.
In 2018, the Mapuche were suing Exxon, French company TotalEnergies and Pan American Energy for "dangerous waste" due to "deficient treatment" close to the town of Añelo as oily sludge residue from fracking was tipped in illegal waste dumps.
Exploration Production - Vaca Muerta - Total
Developments in 2014
In February 2014, Archer Ltd. announced it had an "approximately US$400 million" contract with YPF to provide "five new built drilling rigs to support YPF's development of unconventional shale resources in the Neuquén area in Argentina." On February 18 of the same year, YPF announced that it had signed a memorandum of understanding with Petronas on a possible investment (agreed upon in the following August; see below) in the 187 square kilometer Amarga Chica zone of the Vaca Muerta formation; YPF also indicated that its current production in Vaca Muerta was over 20,000 barrels of oil equivalent a day from over 150 fracked wells using 19 fracking drill rigs. Helmerich & Payne disclosed on March 5, 2014, that it had contracted with YPF to deploy 10 drill rigs under five-year contracts from the United States to Argentina between the third quarter of 2014 and the first quarter of 2015 to work in the Vaca Muerta play in addition to the nine rigs Helmerich & Payne already had in the country. On April 10, 2014, Miguel Gallucio of YPF announced that Chevron had decided to continue its partnership with YPF in the "massive development" of Vaca Muerta; the US$1.24 billion pilot program financed by Chevron and ended in March had developed 161 fracked wells in a 20 square kilometer area. The new phase would frack 170 additional wells that year with a joint investment of over US$1.6 billion, with YPF continuing as operator. The goal agreed upon for future years would be to develop an area of 395 square kilometers with over 1500 fracked wells producing over 50,000 barrels of oil and 3 million cubic meters (over 100 million cubic feet) of natural gas a day. Chevron and YPF also agreed on a US$140,000,000, four-year exploration project to drill and analyze 7 vertical and 2 horizontal wells in a 200 square kilometer area (Narambuena) in the Chihuido de la Sierra Negra concession, to be financed by Chevron with YPF as operator. In an interview with the Argentine newspaper La Nación published September 14, 2014, Gallucio indicated that production in the Loma Campana field had reached 31,000 barrels of oil equivalent a day.
2015-present
In January 2015 YPF and Sinopec signed a memorandum of understanding for future cooperation in both conventional and unconventional petroleum development; they indicated that Sinopec Argentina Exploration and Production S.A. was already doing due diligence on exploration and development in "certain areas" of Vaca Muerta together with YPF. In January 2015 YPF indicated that it and Chevron had invested over US$3 billion in their Loma Campana venture, which YPF described as the most important unconventional oil project in the world outside the United States.
Blocks and financing
As of 2013 Vaca Muerta was divided into different development blocks. Consortium of YPF (50%) and Chevron (50%) develops General Enrique Mosconi concession, including Loma La Lata Norte and Loma Campana fields.
Human right violations and environmental impacts
In July 2013, protests against the ratification of the YPF-Chevron US$16 billion agreement to exploit the Loma Campana concession were heavily repressed by the police.
Each oil well demands 640 water trucks, the equivalent of nine Olympic-size pools, over the lifetime of the well.
Other environmental externalities include the clash of with agriculture in the town of Dolavon, Chubut province.
See also
External links
Categories: Geologic Formations Of Argentina, Lower Cretaceous Series Of South America, Jurassic System Of South America, Late Jurassic South America, Cretaceous Argentina, Jurassic Argentina, Berriasian Stage, Tithonian Stage, Source Rock Formations, Reservoir Rock Formations, Fossiliferous Stratigraphic Units Of South America, Paleontology In Argentina, Formations, Geology Of Neuquén Province, Oil Fields In Argentina, Unconventional Oil, Ypf
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